作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
一个画家挂自己完成的画挂在墙上,每个人都能看到它。一个作曲家创作工作,但是没有人能听到它,直到它被执行。职业歌手和职业演奏者,作曲家依赖于他们。一个学生的音乐一样,需要经过长期艰苦的训练成为一名演员作为一名医科学生要成为医生。大多数是技能的训练,他们必须要有相应的肌力的运动员或芭蕾舞演员。歌手每天练习呼吸,因为他们的声带将受到肌肉的支持。弦乐演奏动人左手的手指上,绘画船头来回这样两个截然不同的动作。 歌手和乐器必须使每个音符的完美结合。钢琴家就没有这种烦恼,因为记录已经在那里等着他们,是钢琴调音师的责任,为他们定好。但是他们也有自己的难点;锤打这个字符串必须是不能让人听起来像打击乐,每个叠音必须清晰。
这个问题弄清楚是困惑学生教导员:他们必须清楚地知道每个音符的音乐和它如何发音,以及针对控制这些声音与狂热而无私的权威。
技术是毫无用处的,除非它是结合音乐方面的知识和理解。伟大的艺术家是那些驾轻就熟的语言,他们可以享受音乐演奏在任何时代创作的作品。
02 Schooling and Education 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： It is commonly believed in United States that school is where people go to get an education. Nevertheless, it has been said that today children interrupt their education to go to school. The distinction between schooling and education implied by this remark is important. Education is much more open-ended and all-inclusive than schooling. Education knows no bounds. It can take place anywhere, whether in the shower or in the job, whether in a kitchen or on a tractor. It includes both the formal learning that takes place in schools and the whole universe of informal learning. The agents of education can range from a revered grandparent to the people debating politics on the radio, from a child to a distinguished scientist. Whereas schooling has a certain predictability, education quite often produces surprises. A chance conversation with a stranger may lead a person to discover how little is known of other religions. People are engaged in education from infancy on. Education, then, is a very broad, inclusive term. It is a lifelong process, a process that starts long before the start of school, and one that should be an integral part of one’s entire life. Schooling, on the other hand, is a specific, formalized process, whose general pattern varies little from one setting to the next. Throughout a country, children arrive at school at approximately the same time, take assigned seats, are taught by an adult, use similar textbooks, do homework, take exams, and so on. The slices of reality that are to be learned, whether they are the alphabet or an understanding of the working of government, have usually been limited by the boundaries of the subject being taught. For example, high school students know that there not likely to find out in their classes the truth about political problems in their communities or what the newest filmmakers are experimenting with. There are definite conditions surrounding the formalized process of schooling. 2学校和教育
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
人们普遍认为在美国的学校是人们受教育的地方。然而,它被认为孩子们上学打断了他们受教育。学校和教育之间的区别是很重要的暗示了这番话。
教育是比上学内容更综合和全面。教育是无限的。它可以发生在任何地方,在淋浴时,在工作时,在厨房或拖拉机上。它包括的正式教育,在学校和非正式学习的所有领域。学习的对象可以是德高望重的广播中政治辩论的人们,从孩童到著名的科学家。上学读书多少有点可预见性,而教育往往能带来意外的发现。有机会与陌生人谈话可能会使人认识到自己对其宗教所知甚少。人们正在从事教育从婴儿。因此,教育是一种非常丰富的词。这是一个终生的过程,是一个长期的过程,开始启动之前,学校应该是整个生命完整的一部分。
教育,另一方面,是一种特殊的、形式化的过程中,其总体格局,而从一个背景下。在全国,孩子们到学校大约在同一时间,以指定的位置,由成人,使用相同的教材,做作业,考试等等。这个片学习的人,无论他们是字母表或对政府工作的理解,通常都会局限于所学学科范围。举例来说,高中学生知道有些不可能找到在课堂上他们对政治问题的真相的人在他们的社区或最新上映的影片。有一定的条件学校正式教育的。
03 The Definition of “Price” 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Prices determine how resources are to be used. They are also the means by which products and services that are in limited supply are rationed among buyers. The price system of the United States is a complex network composed of the prices of all the products bought and sold in the economy as well as those of a myriad of services, including labor, professional, transportation, and public-utility services. The interrelationships of all these prices make up the “system” of prices. The price of any particular product or service is linked to a broad, complicated system of prices in which everything seems to depend more or less upon everything else. If one were to ask a group of randomly selected individuals to define “price”, many would reply that price is an amount of money paid by the buyer to the seller of a product or service or, in other words that price is the money values of a product or service as agreed upon in a market transaction. This definition is, of course, valid as far as it goes. For a complete understanding of a price in any particular transaction, much more than the amount of money involved must be known. Both the buyer and the seller should be familiar with not only the money amount, but with the amount and quality of the product or service to be exchanged, the time and place at which the exchange will take place and payment will be made, the form of money to be used, the credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and other factors. In other words, both buyer and seller should be fully aware of all the factors that comprise the total “package” being exchanged for the asked-for amount of money in order that they may evaluate a given price. 03定义的“价格”
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源: 价格决定资源的使用方式。他们还种的产品和服务有限公司配给的买家。美国的价格系统是一个复杂的网络构成的所有产品的价格买入或卖出的经济以及那些的各种服务,包括劳动、专业、交通运输、公共事业服务。所有这些价格的关系构成“系统”的价格。价格的任何特定的产品或服务与宽广的、复杂的系统中所有的价格或多或少地受到其他一切。
如果有人问一群随机选取的个人来定义“价格”,许多人会回答那个价格一定数量的钱支付给卖方的产品或服务,或者换句话说,价格是金钱价值的产品或服务的市场交易。这个定义,当然,只要它是有效的。对于一个完整的理解的价格在任何特定的交易中,远远超过了涉及的金额必须认识。买卖双方应该熟悉不仅金额,但数量和质量的产品和服务,时间和交换地点的交流将发生和付款方式,金钱的形式被使用,本信用证条款和折扣的交易,保证产品或服务,交货条件,特权和其他因素。换句话说,买方和卖方应充分意识到所有的因素,采用“包装”被兑换金额(以便他们能够评估一个特定的价格。
04 Electricity 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： The modern age is an age of electricity. People are so used to electric lights, radio, televisions, and telephones that it is hard to imagine what life would be like without them. When there is a power failure, people grope about in flickering candlelight, cars hesitate in the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide them, and food spoils in silent refrigerators. Yet, people began to understand how electricity works only a little more than two centuries ago. Nature has apparently been experimenting in this field for million of years. Scientists are discovering more and more that the living world may hold many interesting secrets of electricity that could benefit humanity. All living cell send out tiny pulses of electricity. As the heart beats, it sends out pulses of record; they form an electrocardiogram, which a doctor can study to determine how well the heart is working. The brain, too, sends out brain waves of electricity, which can be recorded in an electroencephalogram. The electric currents generated by most living cells are extremely small – often so small that sensitive instruments are needed to record them. But in some animals, certain muscle cells have become so specialized as electrical generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all. When large numbers of these cell are linked together, the effects can be astonishing. The electric eel is an amazing storage battery. It can seed a jolt of as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through the water in which it live. ( An electric house current is only one hundred twenty volts.) As many as four-fifths of all the cells in the electric eel’s body are specialized for generating electricity, and the strength of the shock it can deliver corresponds roughly to length of its body. 04电
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
现代的年龄是一个时代的电力。人们如此习惯于电灯、收音机、电视和电话,很难想象没有它们生活会变成什么样。当停电时,人们在闪烁摇曳的烛光,车辆在街上犹豫,因为没有红绿灯,引导他们,和食物在冰箱里。
仍然,人们开始了解电作品仅以稍多于两个世纪以前。大自然显然一直在这方面经历多年。,科学家发现,越来越多的生活世界,可以容纳很多有趣的秘密,能有益于人类电力。
所有的活细胞发出微小的电脉冲。作为心脏跳动,它发出的脉冲记录;他们形成心电图,医生能够学习怎样确定心脏的工作。大脑,散发出的脑电波的电力,这能被记录在一个脑电图。发出的电流是极其微小的大多数活细胞——通常是如此之小,以至于敏感仪器才能记录。但是一些动物的某些肌肉细胞能发电机,他们不肌肉细胞的功能。当大量的这些细胞相连,其影响可能会是非常令人吃惊的。
电鳗鱼是一个了不起的蓄电池。它可以一次,多达800伏特的电流,它活。(电动家目前只有120伏特。)多达五分之四的细胞在电鳗的身体是专门用于发电、电流的强度成正比,它的长度大致。
05 The Beginning of Drama 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： There are many theories about the beginning of drama in ancient Greece. The on most widely accepted today is based on the assumption that drama evolved from ritual. The argument for this view goes as follows. In the beginning, human beings viewed the natural forces of the world-even the seasonal changes-as unpredictable, and they sought through various means to control these unknown and feared powers. Those measures which appeared to bring the desired results were then retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed rituals. Eventually stories arose which explained or veiled the mysteries of the rites. As time passed some rituals were abandoned, but the stories, later called myths, persisted and provided material for art and drama. Those who believe that drama evolved out of ritual also argue that those rites contained the seed of theater because music, dance, masks, and costumes were almost always used, Furthermore, a suitable site had to be provided for performances and when the entire community did not participate, a clear division was usually made between the \"acting area\" and the \"auditorium.\" In addition, there were performers, and, since considerable importance was attached to avoiding mistakes in the enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task. Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other people, animals, or supernatural beings, and mimed the desired effect-success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the revival of the Sun-as an actor might. Eventually such dramatic representations were separated from religious activities. Another theory traces the theater's origin from the human interest in storytelling. According to this vies tales (about the hunt, war, or other feats) are gradually elaborated, at first through the use of impersonation, action, and dialogue by a narrator and then through the assumption of each of the roles by a different person. A closely related theory traces theater to those dances that are primarily rhythmical and gymnastic or that are imitations of animal movements and sounds. 05赛季开始的戏剧
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
有很多理论,开始在古希腊戏剧。在最广为接受的今天是基于假定戏剧是从仪式。有人认为,这一观点是这样的。在开始,人类的自然力量的world-even季节性的changes-as不可预知的,就设法通过各种手段来控制这些未知和恐惧的力量。这些措施可带来期望的结果随后被保留,重复进行,直到他们硬进固定仪式。最终的故事解释或者掩盖起来的神秘的东西也就不足为奇了。随着时间的流逝某些仪式被废弃了,但后来被称作神话故事,而且为艺术和戏剧提供了素材。
那些认为进化出来的戏剧也认为这些仪式,仪式的种子的剧场,因为音乐、舞蹈、面具、服装几乎总是一个合适的地点,必须提供性能,当整个社区没有参与分工明确,通常是“代理”和“礼堂。”此外,还有表演者,而且相当受到重视,以避免错误的仪式,宗教领袖们通常认为的任务。戴着面具,穿着,他们经常假冒他人,动物或超自然生灵,并且预期在mimed effect-success打猎或战斗,即将到来的雨,未来的Sun-as演员可能。最后这些戏剧性的分离的宗教活动。
另一种理论将戏剧的起源归因于讲故事。根据这个理论的故事(狩猎、战争或其他专长)慢慢的,首先通过阐述解说人的、行动、对话,然后通过讲述到不同的角色由不同的人。一种理论将戏剧密切相关,这些舞蹈,有节奏的,体操,或者是模仿动物动作和声音。
06 Television 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Television-----the most pervasive and persuasive of modern technologies, marked by rapid change and growth-is moving into a new era, an era of extraordinary sophistication and versatility, which promises to reshape our lives and our world. It is an electronic revolution of sorts, made possible by the marriage of television and computer technologies. The word \"television\derived from its Greek (tele: distant) and Latin (visio: sight) roots, can literally be interpreted as sight from a distance. Very simply put, it works in this way: through a sophisticated system of electronics, television provides the capability of converting an image (focused on a special photoconductive plate within a camera) into electronic impulses, which can be sent through a wire or cable. These impulses, when fed into a receiver (television set), can then be electronically reconstituted into that same image. Television is more than just an electronic system, however. It is a means of expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as such becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings. The field of television can be divided into two categories determined by its means of transmission. First, there is broadcast television, which reaches the masses through broad-based airwave transmission of television signals. Second, there is nonbroadcast television, which provides for the needs of individuals or specific interest groups through controlled transmission techniques. Traditionally, television has been a medium of the masses. We are most familiar with broadcast television because it has been with us for about thirty-seven years in a form similar to what exists today. During those years, it has been controlled, for the most part, by the broadcast networks, ABC, NBC, and CBS, who have been the major purveyors of news, information, and entertainment. These giants of broadcasting have actually shaped not only television but our perception of it as well. We have come to look upon the picture tube as a source of entertainment, placing our role in this dynamic medium as the passive viewer. 06电视机
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
电视中——的最普及和最有影响力的现代技术,以迅速变化和growth-is进入一个新时代,一个极为成熟和多样化的时代,这将重塑我们的生活和我们的世界。它是一种电子革命,通过电视技术与计算机技术的结合。
“电视”,源于希腊语(电视)、拉丁(如:遥远,使人产生联想:视觉)根可以从字面上被
视为从远处看。简单说来,它是这样的:通过一个复杂的电子系统,电视能够转换图像(集中在一个特殊的光导底片上在相机)电子脉冲信号,可通过发送一个导线或电缆。这些电脉冲,当输入一部接收机(电视机),就可以用重组成同一幅图像。
电视不仅仅是一件电器系统。它是表达的手段和交流的载体,并因此成为联系他人的有力工具。
电视这个领域可以分成两大类取决于它的传播途径。首先,有广播电视,达到了大众的广泛的透气的传输通过电视信号。第二,有nonbroadcast电视,提供个人的需要和特殊利益集团通过控制传动技术。
传统上,电视已成为大众媒介。我们熟悉广播电视,因为它已经被用了大约37年形成类似至今仍然存在。在这些年中,它已被控制,在大多数情况下,由广播网络,美国广播公司(ABC),哥伦比亚广播公司(CBS广播公司,那些一直的主要提供者新闻、信息和娱乐。这些广播业的巨头实际上不仅塑造了电视,但是我们的感知。我们来看看显像管看作一个娱乐的来源,让自己在这个充满活力的媒介的被动观众。
07 Andrew Carnegie 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Andrew Carnegie, known as the King of Steel, built the steel industry in the United States, and , in the process, became one of the wealthiest men in America. His success resulted in part from his ability to sell the product and in part from his policy of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of his competitors were reducing their investments. Carnegie believed that individuals should progress through hard work, but he also felt strongly that the wealthy should use their fortunes for the benefit of society. He opposed charity, preferring instead to provide educational opportunities that would allow others to help themselves. \"He who dies rich, dies disgraced,\" he often said. Among his more noteworthy contributions to society are those that bear his name, including the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, which has a library, a museum of fine arts, and a museum of national history. He also founded a school of technology that is now part of Carnegie-Mellon University. Other philanthrophic gifts are the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace to promote understanding between nations, the Carnegie Institute of Washington to fund scientific research, and Carnegie Hall to provide a center for the arts. Few Americans have been left untouched by Andrew Carnegie's generosity. His contributions of more than five million dollars established 2,500 libraries in small communities throughout the country and formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy today. 07安德鲁。卡内基
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源: 安德鲁·卡内基称为国王的钢铁,建立了钢铁工业在美国,在这个过程中,成为美国最富有的人。他的成功,部分来自于他的销售产品的能力,部分来自于他的政策,扩大经济衰退期间,当他大部分的竞争对手都在缩减投资。
卡内基认为人们应该通过艰苦的工作,但是他也强烈地感到有钱人应该运用他们的财富造福社会。他反对慈善事业,更愿意提供教育机会,让别人来帮助自己。“他死了,死蒙丰富经常说:\"。
他对社会的贡献更引人注目的是那些忍受他的名字,包括匹兹堡卡内基学院、图书馆、博物馆的美术、一个国家历史博物馆的。他还创立了一所技术学校,这所学校现在是卡内基梅隆大学的一部分。其他philanthrophic礼物是卡内基国际和平基金会促进国家之间的理解的华盛顿卡内基学院资助科研、提供活动中心的卡内基音乐厅的艺术。
美国人不受安德鲁·卡内基的慷慨。他的贡献超过5万美元的小社区图书馆建立2500人,形成全国的公共图书馆系统的核心,以致于我们大家都喜欢今天。 08 American Revolution 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： The American Revolution was not a sudden and violent overturning of the political and social framework, such as later occurred in France and Russia, when both were already independent nations. Significant changes were ushered in, but they were not breathtaking. What happened was accelerated evolution rather than outright revolution. During the conflict itself people went on working and praying, marrying and playing. Most of them were not seriously disturbed by the actual fighting, and many of the more isolated communities scarcely knew that a war was on. America's War of Independence heralded the birth of three modern nations. One was Canada, which received its first large influx of English-speaking population from the thousands of loyalists who fled there from the United States. Another was Australia, which became a penal colony now that America was no longer available for prisoners and debtors. The third newcomer-the United States-based itself squarely on republican principles. Yet even the political overturn was not so revolutionary as one might suppose. In some states, notably Connecticut and Rhode Island, the war largely ratified a colonial self-rule already existing. British officials, everywhere ousted, were replaced by a home-grown governing class, which promptly sought a local substitute for king and Parliament. 08年美国革命
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
美国革命不是突然和猛烈的颠覆对政治和社会框架,如法国和俄国所爆发的革命以后,在已经是独立国家。革命带来了重大的变化,但他们并不令人惊叹不已。发生了什么事就和俄国革命。在冲突期间,人们还在工作和祷告、结婚、玩耍。他们中的大多数并不严重破坏的实际战斗,并且许多较闭塞的社区对这场战争几乎一无所知。
美国独立战争宣布了三个现代国家的诞生。其中一个是加拿大,接受它的第一大量的以英语为母语的人口从成千上万人的支持者逃离美国。另一个在澳大利亚,这成了一个殖民地,现在美国已经不再提供囚犯和债务人。第三newcomer-the曼联新星本身的共和党的原则。
即使政治上的颠覆没那么革命性的,作为一个可能的假设。在一些国家,特别是康涅
狄格和罗德岛,战争在很大程度上批准了已经存在的殖民地的自治。英国官员,到处都被推翻,本土的统治阶级,立即寻求当地代替国王和议会。 09 Suburbanization 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： If by \"suburb\" is meant an urban margin that grows more rapidly than its already developed interior, the process of suburbanization began during the emergence of the industrial city in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Before that period the city was a small highly compact cluster in which people moved about on foot and goods were conveyed by horse and cart. But the early factories built in the 1840's were located along waterways and near railheads at the edges of cities, and housing was needed for the thousands of people drawn by the prospect of employment. In time, the factories were surrounded by proliferating mill towns of apartments and row houses that abutted the older, main cities. As a defense against this encroachment and to enlarge their tax bases, the cities appropriated their industrial neighbors. In 1854, for example, the city of Philadelphia annexed most of Philadelphia County. Similar municipal maneuvers took place in Chicago and in New York. Indeed, most great cities of the United States achieved such status only by incorporating the communities along their borders. With the acceleration of industrial growth came acute urban crowding and accompanying social stress-conditions that began to approach disastrous proportions when, in 1888, the first commercially successful electric traction line was developed. Within a few years the horse-drawn trolleys were retired and electric streetcar networks crisscrossed and connected every major urban area, fostering a wave of suburbanization that transformed the compact industrial city into a dispersed metropolis. This first phase of mass-scale suburbanization was reinforced by the simultaneous emergence of the urban Middle Class, whose desires for homeownership in neighborhoods far from the aging inner city were satisfied by the developers of single-family housing tracts. 09郊区化
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
如果\"郊区\"指的是城市边缘地带成长的速度高于其已开发的过程内部,开始在出现郊区化的工业城市在第二季度的十九世纪。在这之前,城市是一个小的高度紧凑的集群,人们步行走动,商品用马和马车。但是在早期工厂坐落在1840年的railheads沿水路和附近的边缘城市、房屋所需的成千上万的人们。随着时间的推移,工厂被增生的公寓和排米尔镇的老房子,旧有的主要城市。作为一个反抗这个侵犯,扩大税基,城市工业邻居拨付。比如1854年,费城吞并了绝大部分地区。似的城市化发生在芝加哥和纽约。事实上,很多美国的大城市就是靠吞并它们附近的边缘。
随着工业的加速发展,城市里出现了严重拥挤,伴随着社会stress-conditions灾难性的比例,开始接近时,1888年,第一个商业化成功开发电气牵引线。几年之内,马车都退休了,电车网相互交织连接各主要城市地区,形成了一种郊区化的潮流,密集的工业城市转变成了分散的都市。这一期的mass-scale郊区化在同时出现的城市中产阶级,渴望在街区远的置业饱老化内城的开发者的独栋住宅小区的开发。
13 Skyscrapers and Environment 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： In the late 1960's, many people in North America turned their attention to environmental problems, and new steel-and-glass skyscrapers were widely criticized. Ecologists pointed out that a cluster of tall buildings in a city often overburdens public transportation and parking lot capacities. Skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power. In one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of skyscraper office space in New York City raised the peak daily demand for electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply the entire city of Albany, New York, for a day. Glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful. The heat loss (or gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten times that through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board. To lessen the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders of skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and reflective glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce glare as well as heat gain. However, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise the temperature of the surrounding air and affect neighboring buildings. Skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city's sanitation facilities, too. If fully occupied, the two World Trade Center towers in New York City would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each year-as much as a city the size of Stanford, Connecticut , which has a population of more than 109, 000. 13摩天大楼和环境
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
在1960年,在北美很多人把注意力转向了环境问题,新steel-and-glass摩天大楼受到了广泛的批评。生态学家指出,一群高大的建筑物中表明城市公共交通与停车场的承载能力。
摩天大楼也是大户,和电力的浪费者。在一个最近的一年,增加17万平方英尺的摩天大楼办公空间在纽约每日需求量了顶峰,120万kilowatts-enough电供应整个城市奥尔巴尼纽约停留了一天。
高耸入云的摩天大楼特别地浪费。热损失(或增加)的一面墙,half-inch平板玻璃的十倍以上,通过一个典型的加入绝缘板。为了减少压力加热和空调设备,摩天大楼的建造者们已经开始使用double-glazed板的玻璃和反光玻璃涂着银色或金色薄膜,减少强光照射和热量增益。然而,mirror-walled摩天大楼筹集周围空气的温度和影响邻近的建筑。
摩天大楼了沉重的压力对城市的卫生设施。如果饱满,这两个世界贸易中心大楼在纽约市将产生2,250,000加仑的污水每一个城市一样打着勾销的大小,康涅狄格州斯坦福的人口超过109万。
14 A Rare Fossil Record 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： The preservation of embryos and juveniles is a rate occurrence in the fossil record. The tiny, delicate skeletons are usually scattered by scavengers or destroyed by weathering before they can be fossilized. Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did terrestrial creatures because, as marine animals, they tended to live in environments less subject to erosion. Still, their fossilization required a suite of factors: a slow rate of decay of soft tissues, little scavenging by other animals, a lack of swift currents and waves to jumble and carry away small bones, and fairly rapid burial. Given these factors, some areas have become a treasury of well-preserved ichthyosaur fossils. The deposits at Holzmaden, Germany, present an interesting case for analysis. The ichthyosaur remains are found in black, bituminous marine shales deposited about 190 million years ago. Over the years, thousands of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have been recovered from these rocks. The quality of preservation is outstanding, but what is even more impressive is the number of ichthyosaur fossils containing preserved embryos. Ichthyosaurs with embryos have been reported from 6 different levels of the shale in a small area around Holzmaden, suggesting that a specific site was used by large numbers of ichthyosaurs repeatedly over time. The embryos are quite advanced in their physical development; their paddles, for example, are already well formed. One specimen is even preserved in the birth canal. In addition, the shale contains the remains of many newborns that are between 20 and 30 inches long. Why are there so many pregnant females and young at Holzmaden when they are so rare elsewhere? The quality of preservation is almost unmatched and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with an awareness of the value of the fossils. But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth. 14罕见的化石记录
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
对未成年人的保护,是胚胎发生在化石记录。这个小、精致的骨骼通常由清道夫或破坏分散前就被风化掉了。Ichthyosaurs有更高的几率比陆地生物被保存下来,因为它们作为海洋动物往往生活在腐蚀性较小的环境中。仍然,他们需要一套石化因素:一个很慢的腐烂的软组织,以其它动物一样,清除缺乏快速电流和波搞乱,带走小骨,相当迅速埋藏。考虑到这些因素,一些地区已经成为一个库保存完好的ichthyosaur化石。
在德国,那儿的沉积物给人们提出了一个有趣的分析案例。这个ichthyosaur仍然存在于黑,沥青沉积大约190万海洋流体年前发生的事。在过去的几年里,成千上万的标本的海洋爬行动物、鱼和无脊椎动物已经恢复,这些岩石。在保存质量优秀,但更令人印象深刻的是大量的ichthyosaur胚胎化石包含保存。与胚胎Ichthyosaurs来自六个不同层次的页岩在一个小的区域周围,那儿的沉积物给人们提出了具体的网站在使用大量的Ichthyosaurs一再的时间。非常先进的胚胎发育;他们的鳍发育得很好。一个样本甚至在产道中被保存了下来。此外,页岩包含着许多新生的20 - 30英寸长。
为什么有这么多的怀孕女性和年轻时在Holzmaden是极其少见的其他地方吗?在保
存质量几乎举世无双,采集工作已经进行了仔细的觉知的化石的价值。但是这些因素不能解释这个有趣的问题,这样的怀孕ichthyosaurs集中在某一特定地点非常接近他们出生的。
15 The Nobel Academy 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： For the last 82years, Sweden's Nobel Academy has decided who will receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, thereby determining who will be elevated from the great and the near great to the immortal. But today the Academy is coming under heavy criticism both from the without and from within. Critics contend that the selection of the winners often has less to do with true writing ability than with the peculiar internal politics of the Academy and of Sweden itself. According to Ingmar Bjorksten , the cultural editor for one of the country's two major newspapers, the prize continues to represent \"what people call a very Swedish exercise: reflecting Swedish tastes.\" The Academy has defended itself against such charges of provincialism in its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the great literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the Academy from outside influences. This may well be true, but critics respond that this very distance may also be responsible for the Academy's inability to perceive accurately authentic trends in the literary world. Regardless of concerns over the selection process, however, it seems that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that writers seek. If for no other reason, the prize will continue to be desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it; not only is the cash prize itself considerable, but it also dramatically increases sales of an author's books. 15诺贝尔学院
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
最后82years、瑞典诺贝尔学院已经决定谁将获得诺贝尔文学奖,从而确定谁将会从大、近距离大的不朽。但是今天的学院是在批评从外部和内部。评论家认为选择往往会有更真实的写作能力的奇特的内部的政治学院和瑞典本身。根据英格玛Bjorksten、文化的编辑一个国家的两种主要的报纸,诺贝尔和平奖继续代表“人们所说的非常瑞典练习:反映瑞典品味。”
学会面对这样的那些选择面狭窄的说法,声称其物理距离世界上的各大能保证学院从外界的影响。这也许是真的,但批评者回应,这距离负责学会无力感知到文学界真正的潮流。
无论选择过程的关注,然而,它看起来,这个奖项将继续生存下去,无论是作为一个指标的文学,我们最高度赞扬,作家们梦寐以求的目标而。如果没有别的原因,奖金将继续成为理想因了它的经济效益,不仅仅是因为这里的奖金,但它本身相当销量飙升了作者的书。
16. the war between Britain and France 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： In the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost every corner of Europe, as well as in the Middle East, south Africa ,the West Indies, and Latin America. In reality, however, there was only one major war during this time, the war between Britain and France. All other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at least partially related to its antagonist’ goals and strategies. France sought total domination of Europe . this goal was obstructed by British independence and Britain’s efforts throughout the continent to thwart Napoleon; through treaties. Britain built coalitions (not dissimilar in concept to today’s NATO) guaranteeing British participation in all major European conflicts. These two antagonists were poorly matched, insofar as they had very unequal strengths; France was predominant on land, Britain at sea. The French knew that, short of defeating the British navy, their only hope of victory was to close all the ports of Europe to British ships. Accordingly, France set out to overcome Britain by extending its military domination from Moscow t Lisbon, from Jutland to Calabria. All of this entailed tremendous risk, because France did not have the military resources to control this much territory and still protect itself and maintain order at home. French strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships would provide the force necessary to defeat the British navy. Such a force would give France a three-to-two advantage over Britain. This advantage was deemed necessary because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology, and also because Britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing it to win with fewer forces. Napoleon never lost substantial impediment to his control of Europe. As his force neared that goal, Napoleon grew increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate attack. 16岁。英国和法国之间的战争
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
18世纪末,战斗激烈,几乎每一个角落,以及欧洲在中东、南非、西印度群岛和拉丁美洲。然而,在现实中只有一个主要的战争在这段时间里,我们之间的战争中英国和法国。所有其他的战斗是附属于这个更大的冲突,并且常常至少部分对其对手的有关目标和策略。法国想统治整个欧洲。这个目标是由英国的独立和英国的阻挠整个大陆的努力来对抗拿破仑;通过条约。英国建立联盟(类似于现在的北约)来保证其参与所有主要的欧洲战争。这2大对手,只要他们相差悬殊,法国在陆地上称雄,英国在海上。法国人知道要打败英国海军,他们唯一的胜利希望关闭所有的港口的欧洲英国船只。因此,法国出发去克服其军事统治英国扩展,从莫斯科t里斯本,卡拉布里亚日德兰半岛。所有这些危机四伏,因为法国没有足够的军事资源来控制这么多的领土,还是保护自己并维持公共秩序。
法国人计算出一个海军船只将提供了150人足以打败英国海军。这样一支部队将给法国对英国以3:2占优势。这种优势是必要的,因为英国技巧和技术,因为英国技术,而且英国打的是自卫战争的胜利,允许它用更少的力量。拿破仑从来不乏艰难险阻,欧洲的。当他的军队接近目标时,拿破仑变得越来越不耐烦了,开始计划立即进攻。
17.Evolution of sleep 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Sleep is very ancient. In the electroencephalographic sense we share it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds: it may extend back as far as the reptiles. There is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep. In dream sleep, the animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external stimuli. Dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep. The fact that deep dream sleep is rare among pray today seems clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones. But why should they sleep deeply at all? Why should a state of such deep immobilization ever have evolved? Perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in genera seem to sleep very little. There is, by and large, no place to hide in the ocean. Could it be that, rather than increasing an animal’s vulnerability, the University of Florida and Ray Meddis of London University have suggested this to be the case. It is conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own initiative are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep. The point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals. This is an interesting notion and probably at least partly true. 17。演化的睡眠
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
睡眠是很古老的。从脑电图与所有灵长类动物中,几乎所有的其它哺乳动物和鸟类的睡眠:这也许可以追溯到爬行动物。
有迹象表明,这两种类型的睡眠,做梦和无梦的,靠动物的生活习惯,比如狩猎者经常会做梦超过猎物,依次更加可能体验到无梦的睡眠。在睡眠时,动物不能动弹而且对外界刺激。无梦的睡眠是非常浅的,而且我们都见过猫或狗竖起耳朵来在熟睡中。深入地做梦睡眠的事实是罕见的在今天清楚地祈祷之中似乎是一种自然淘汰的产品,而且它有道理今天,当睡眠高度地被进展的时候,愚蠢的动物那样经常沉入深睡眠而聪明的人。但是他们为什么应该深深地究竟睡觉?为什么如此深固定的状态应该永远而来吗?
深入地做梦睡眠的最初功能的事实中被发现海豚和鲸鱼和水生哺乳动物似乎睡觉非常小。但是他们为什么应该深深地究竟睡觉。是否能增加,而不是一种动物的脆弱性,佛罗里达大学和雷Meddis伦敦大学的人说这是这个案子。可想而知,动物们都是太愚蠢而被完全主动高风险的时期,太傻了手臂的睡眠。这一点尤其明显,掠夺动物的年轻。这是一个有趣的观念和可能至少部分真实。
18.Modern American Universities 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Before the 1850’s, the United States had a number of small colleges, most of them dating from colonial days. They were small, church connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral character of their students. Throughout Europe, institutions of higher learning had developed, bearing the ancient name of university. In German university was concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals. Between mid-century and the end of the 1800’s, more than nine thousand young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to Germany for advanced study. Some of them return to become presidents of venerable colleges-----Harvard, Yale, Columbia---and transform them into modern universities. The new presidents broke all ties with the churches and brought in a new kind of faculty. Professors were hired for their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and had a strong arm for disciplining students. The new principle was that a university was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this called for a faculty composed of teacher-scholars. Drilling and learning by rote were replaced by the German method of lecturing, in which the professor’s own research was presented in class. Graduate training leading to the Ph.D., an ancient German degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly attainment, was introduced. With the establishment of the seminar system, graduate student learned to question, analyze, and conduct their own research. At the same time, the new university greatly expanded in size and course offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted curriculum of mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music. The president of Harvard pioneered the elective system, by which students were able to choose their own course of study. The notion of major fields of study emerged. The new goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the world. Paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new universities trained men and women to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the most characteristic of the new regime. Students were also trained as economists, architects, agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and teachers. 18岁。现代美国大学
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
在1850年之前,美国有众多规模很小的大学,他们中的大部分建于殖民时期。他们还很小的时候,教会连接机构的主要目标是培养学生的道德素养。
在欧洲,高等学校的发展,承载着古老的名字。在德国大学而言,主要与创造和传播知识,而不是道德。到年底之间,在1800股的,超过9000名年轻的美国人不满意他们的训练,在家里,去德国深造。他们中的一些人回到成为总统的院校,耶鲁大学——-哈佛,哥伦比亚——把他们转变成现代大学。这些新校长们的教堂和引进一种新的教员。教授被雇来的学科知识,而不是因为他们信仰或训育学生。新的原则是,一个大学创建并传递知识,这需要一批学者型教师。钻孔和死记硬背被德国的讲师,教授们可以把自己的研究。博士研究生教育的象征,在德国的最高水平,是具有国际先进水平的学术成就。建立系统的研讨会,研究生学习问题、分析、处理他们自己的研究。
同时,新的大学在大小和扩大,完全打破旧的、狭隘的数学课程,经功能、修辞功能、
和音乐。哈佛大学校长率先选修制度,学生们可以选择自己的学习课程。主修课程的概念应运而生。这个新的目标是使大学有关世界的趋势。密切关注社会的现实需求,新的大学训练有素的男性和女性的任务,学生被新政权的典型特征。学生们也培养出了经济学家,建筑师、农业、社会福利工作者和教师。
19.children’s numerical skills 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： people appear to born to compute. The numerical skills of children develop so early and so inexorably that it is easy to imagine an internal clock of mathematical maturity guiding their growth. Not long after learning to walk and talk, they can set the table with impress accuracy---one knife, one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs. Soon they are capable of nothing that they have placed five knives, spoons and forks on the table and, a bit later, that this amounts to fifteen pieces of silverware. Having thus mastered addition, they move on to subtraction. It seems almost reasonable to expect that if a child were secluded on a desert island at birth and retrieved seven years later, he or she could enter a second enter a second-grade mathematics class without any serious problems of intellectual adjustment. Of course, the truth is not so simple. This century, the work of cognitive psychologists has illuminated the subtle forms of daily learning on which intellectual progress depends. Children were observed as they slowly grasped-----or, as the case might be, bumped into-----concepts that adults take for quantity is unchanged as water pours from a short glass into a tall thin one. Psychologists have since demonstrated that young children, asked to count the pencils in a pile, readily report the number of blue or red pencils, but must be coaxed into finding the total. Such studies have suggested that the rudiments of mathematics are mastered gradually, and with effort. They have also suggested that the very concept of abstract numbers------the idea of a oneness, a twoness, a threeness that applies to any class of objects and is a prerequisite for doing anything more mathematically demanding than setting a table-----is itself far from innate 19.children的数值技巧
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
人们会生计算。孩子们的算术技巧发展得这么早,所以不可阻挡,它很容易让人想到一个时钟的数学知识的指导他们的成长。不久,学走路和说话的时候,他们可以把表———印象刀、准确性、叉、一勺每五个。不久,他们有能力无物他们五刀,勺子和刀叉放在桌子上,稍后,这就等于十五奖杯。这样掌握了加法以后,他们搬到减法。它似乎有理由认为,如果一个孩子在一个孤岛上与世隔绝出生,七年后,他或她可以进入二年级数学班没有任何智力。
当然,事实并非如此简单。本世纪以来,心理学家的工作已经阐明了微妙形式的日常学习知识进步得视情况而定。孩子们被观察到,因为他们慢慢地把握——或者,在某些情况下会撞到——-concepts那个成年人的数量不变作为水从一个短暂的一个长而薄的人。心理学家得出结论,年幼的孩子,要算一堆铅笔时,他们会很乐意告诉你这个号码的蓝色或红色的铅笔,但必须予以利诱才能得到总数。这些研究表明了数学基础是逐渐掌握所做出的努力。他们也表明:编号——这个想法的统一性,
如,一维性、二重性、三重性,适用于任何类的对象是一个先决条件,更具数学要求的事情比表—-本身并不是天生
20 The Historical Significance of American Revolution 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： The ways of history are so intricate and the motivations of human actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt to represent events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of persons, and distant localities as the expression of one intellectual or social movement; yet the historical process which culminated in the ascent of Thomas Jefferson to the presidency can be regarded as the outstanding example not only of the birth of a new way of life but of nationalism as a new way of life. The American Revolution represents the link between the seventeenth century, in which modern England became conscious of itself, and the awakening of modern Europe at the end of the eighteenth century. It may seem strange that the march of history should have had to cross the Atlantic Ocean, but only in the North American colonies could a struggle for civic liberty lead also to the foundation of a new nation. Here, in the popular rising against a “tyrannical” government, the fruits were more than the securing of a freer constitution. They included the growth of a nation born in liberty by the will of the people, not from the roots of common descent, a geographic entity, or the ambitions of king or dynasty. With the American nation, for the first time, a nation was born, not in the dim past of history but before the eyes of the whole world. 历史意义的20个美国革命
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
这个方法是如此复杂的历史和动机的人的行为太复杂了,它总是危险试图代表事件,包括了许多年,一个人的多样性,遥远的地方作为表达一个智力或社会运动的历史进程;然而,最终以提升的托马斯·杰弗逊总统可以被看作是优秀的例子不仅诞生的一种新的生活方式,但对民族主义作为一种新的生活方式。美国革命之间的联系,在17世纪现代英国复苏和现代欧洲觉醒十八世纪末。也许看起来很奇怪,历史的步伐应该已经穿越大西洋,但只在北美殖民地为公民自由的斗争就不可能同时导致建立一个新的国家。在这里,在这个流行的崛起与“专制政府”,水果也超过了获取的自由的宪法。他们有一个国家的增长生于自由人民的意愿,而不是从根部的常见的后裔,地理实体或理想的国王或王朝。与美国,第一次,一个国家的诞生,而不是在昏暗的过去的历史,但在全世界人们的眼前。 21 The Origin of Sports 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： When did sport begin? If sport is, in essence, play, the claim might be made that sport is much older than humankind, for , as we all have observed, the beasts play. Dogs and cats wrestle and play ball games. Fishes and birds dance. The apes have simple, pleasurable games. Frolicking infants, school children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers are demonstrating strong, transgenerational and transspecies bonds with the universe of animals – past, present, and future. Young animals, particularly, tumble, chase, run wrestle, mock, imitate, and laugh (or so it seems) to the point of delighted exhaustion. Their play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to give pleasure to the players, and apparently, to remove us temporarily from the anguish of life in earnest. Some philosophers have claimed that our playfulness is the most noble part of our basic nature. In their generous conceptions, play harmlessly and experimentally permits us to put our creative forces, fantasy, and imagination into action. Play is release from the tedious battles against scarcity and decline which are the incessant, and inevitable, tragedies of life. This is a grand conception that excites and provokes. The holders of this view claim that the origins of our highest accomplishments ---- liturgy, literature, and law ---- can be traced to a play impulse which, paradoxically, we see most purely enjoyed by young beasts and children. Our sports, in this rather happy, nonfatalistic view of human nature, are more splendid creations of the nondatable, transspecies play impulse. 21起源的运动
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
什么时候开始的?运动如果运动本质上是玩耍的话,那么,运动比人类古老,因为正如我们所观察到的,野兽也玩。狗和猫喜欢摔交和玩滚球游戏。鱼和鸟喜欢跳舞。猿猴有简单的、愉悦身心的游戏。婴儿嬉闹玩,和强、鱼和鸟喜欢跳舞种类债券与宇宙的动物,包括过去、现在和未来。年轻的动物,特别是,翻滚,追逐、奔跑扭打、模仿、笑(或看起来如此),很疲惫。他们的玩耍和我们一样,似乎并没有别的目的就是让快乐,而且明显暂时把我们从生活的痛苦中解脱出来。
一些哲学家称我们的爱玩的天性是最高尚的一部分,我们的基本性质。在他们的观点,玩耍无害,使我们的创造力,幻想和想象。剧本是脱离的缺乏和衰落而产生的没完没了的和不可避免的悲剧的生活。这是一个伟大的想法并使人激动。持有这种观点的人们认为我们的最高成就—礼仪、文学、法律——可以追溯到出的冲动,我们所看到的最纯粹从幼兽和孩子。我们的运动,在这个相当快乐,无宿命论的观点看来,是最伟大的时代、跨。
22. Collectibles 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Collectibles have been a part of almost every culture since ancient times. Whereas some objects have been collected for their usefulness, others have been selected for their aesthetic beauty alone. In the United States, the kinds of collectibles currently popular range from traditional objects such as stamps, coins, rare books, and art to more recent items of interest like dolls, bottles, baseball cards, and comic books. Interest in collectibles has increased enormously during the past decade, in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their value as investments. Especially during cycles of high inflation, investors try to purchase tangibles that will at least retain their current market values. In general, the most traditional collectibles will be sought because they have preserved their value over the years, there is an organized auction market for them, and they are most easily sold in the event that cash is needed. Some examples of the most stable collectibles are old masters, Chinese ceramics, stamps, coins, rare books, antique jewelry, silver, porcelain, art by well-known artists, autographs, and period furniture. Other items of more recent interest include old photograph records, old magazines, post cards, baseball cards, art glass, dolls, classic cars, old bottles, and comic books. These relatively new kinds of collectibles may actually appreciate faster as short-term investments, but may not hold their value as long-term investments. Once a collectible has had its initial play, it appreciates at a fairly steady rate, supported by an increasing number of enthusiastic collectors competing for the limited supply of collectibles that become increasingly more difficult to locate. 22。收藏
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
自古以来,几乎每一个文化的一部分。但是,有些东西被收集并使用,而有些则被选为他们的审美价值。在美国,现在流行收藏的范围很广,从传统的邮票、硬币、珍本书籍、艺术品,到最近的有趣的东西,像玩偶、瓶子、棒球卡和漫画书。
收藏的兴趣大增在过去的十年中,部分是因为收藏品的投资价值。特别是在高通货膨胀时期,投资者试图购买有形资产,至少会保持其当前的市场价值。一般来说,最传统的收藏品将保留他们的价值,因为他们已经在过去的几年里,那里是一个有组织的拍卖市场,他们是最容易出手,一旦需要现金。一些最稳当的收藏品是已故大师、中国陶器、邮票、硬币、珍本书籍、古董饰品、银、瓷器、知名艺术家、题名以及家具。其他更近期的物品有旧唱片、旧杂志、明信片、棒球卡、艺术玻璃、玩具、老爷车、旧瓶子和漫画书。这些相对较新的收藏品,实际上可以做短期投资,但可能不能保值作为长期投资。一旦一件收藏品有了最初的交易,它便相对稳定的支持下,越来越多的狂热收藏家争夺有限的收藏品,越来越难以捉摸。 24．Piano 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： The ancestry of the piano can be traced to the early keyboard instruments of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries --- the spinet, the dulcimer, and the virginal. In the seventeenth century the organ, the clavichord, and the harpsichord became the chief instruments of the keyboard group, a supremacy they maintained until the piano supplanted them at the end of the eighteenth century. The clavichord’s tone was metallic and never powerful; nevertheless, because of the variety of tone possible to it, many composers found the clavichord a sympathetic instrument for intimate chamber music. The harpsichord with its bright, vigorous tone was the favorite instrument for supporting the bass of the small orchestra of the period and for concert use, but the character of the tone could not be varied save by mechanical or structural devices. The piano was perfected in the early eighteenth century by a harpsichord maker in Italy (though musicologists point out several previous instances of the instrument). This instrument was called a piano e forte (sort and loud), to indicate its dynamic versatility; its strings were struck by a recoiling hammer with a felt-padded head. The wires were much heavier in the earlier instruments. A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame, and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to a sharp, percussive brilliance. NOTE: Musical Instruments 1.The strings (弦乐) 1) plectrum: harp, lute, guitar, mandolin; 2) keyboard: clavichord, harpsichord, piano; 3) bow: violin, viola, cello, double bass. 2. The Wood（木管）—winds : piccolo, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, English horn; 3. the brass（铜管）: French horn, trumpet, trombone, cornet, tuba, bugle, saxophone; 4.the percussion（打击组）: kettle drum, bass drum, snare drum, castanet, xylophone, celesta, cymbal, tambourine. 24.Piano
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
钢琴的可以追溯到早期的键盘乐器15与16世纪———家,扬琴、维金娜琴。在17世纪的器官,古钢琴,成为了一位键盘乐器,他们保持霸主地位的群体的钢琴取代他们直到十八世纪结束的时候。古钢琴的音色的金属和从不强大;不过,因为不同的色调,许多作曲家可能发现了《同情的仪器为亲密的室内乐。大键琴以其鲜明的、充满活力的语气是最爱的低音的小型乐团音乐会期间和使用,但这个角色的口吻不能得胜、机械或结构不同的设备。
这架钢琴是18世纪早期的意大利由一位(尽管圃之前的例子)。该仪器叫作一架钢琴声专长(排序和e),以显示它;它是一个字符串felt-padded锤子锤头撞击。电线要重得多的早期的乐器。一系列机械进步,持续到19世纪,包括引入踏板、金属结构的完善和钢丝最完美的品质,最后产生了一种仪器能容纳无数音调的影响,从最精致的和弦到一个成熟管弦的声音,从液体,唱调到一把锋利的敲击的光辉。
注: 乐器,
1。这个字符串(弦乐)。
1)plectrum:竖琴,琵琶,弹吉他,曼陀林。 (2):《键盘键琴、钢琴、。
三)鞠躬:小提琴,中提琴,大提琴,低音提琴。
2。木材(木管)-winds:皮科洛、长笛、双簧管、单簧管、特、英文角。 3。铜(铜管):法国、小号、长号、角、家族的号角,萨克斯管。
(四):水壶里打击组打击乐鼓、低音鼓、铃鼓、网罗、木琴、celesta、铙钹、手鼓。 23 Ford 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Although Henry Ford’s name is closely associated with the concept of mass production, he should receive equal credit for introducing labor practices as early as 1913 that would be considered advanced even by today’s standards. Safety measures were improved, and the work day was reduced to eight hours, compared with the ten-or twelve-hour day common at the time. In order to accommodate the shorter work day, the entire factory was converted from two to three shifts. In addition, sick leaves as well as improved medical care for those injured on the job were instituted. The Ford Motor Company was one of the first factories to develop a technical school to train specialized skilled laborers and an English language school for immigrants. Some efforts were even made to hire the handicapped and provide jobs for former convicts. The most widely acclaimed innovation was the five-dollar-a-day minimum wage that was offered in order to recruit and retain the best mechanics and to discourage the growth of labor unions. Ford explained the new wage policy in terms of efficiency and profit sharing. He also mentioned the fact that his employees would be able to purchase the automobiles that they produced – in effect creating a market for the product. In order to qualify for the minimum wage, an employee had to establish a decent home and demonstrate good personal habits, including sobriety, thriftiness, industriousness, and dependability. Although some criticism was directed at Ford for involving himself too much in the personal lives of his employees, there can be no doubt that, at a time when immigrants were being taken advantage of in frightful ways, Henry Ford was helping many people to establish themselves in America. 23福特
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
尽管亨利福特的名字是紧密联系在一起的大批量生产,他应该得到平等的信用为引进的劳动行为早在1913年甚至是先进的,以今天的标准。安全措施进行了改进,在工作时间减少到8小时,相比ten-or 12日共同的时间。为了容纳缩短工作时间,整个工厂转化为两到三个转变。
此外,请病假以及改善医疗保健为工伤制定了。福特汽车公司是第一个在工厂发展了一所技术学校培养专业的熟练工人,为移民的英语语言学校。也努力雇佣残疾人和就业的囚犯。
创新是最广泛赞誉的five-dollar-a-day最低工资,以招募和留住最好的力学和熟工会。福特解释了新的工资政策的效率和利润共享。他还提到他的员工也可以购买他们生产的汽车——创造一个市场的产品。为了获得最低工资,雇员必须建立良好的家庭,具备良好的个人习惯,包括酒精,thriftiness、勤奋、和可靠性。虽然一些批评是针对福特过多涉及自己的个人生活,他的员工是无可置疑的,当时的移民被充分利用在可怕的方式,亨利福特是帮助许多人建立自己在美国。
27. Scientific Theories 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed events that are related. A theory often involves an imaginary model that helps scientists picture the way an observed event could be produced. A good example of this is found in the kinetic molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up of many small particles that are in constant motion. A useful theory, in addition to explaining past observations, helps to predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory has been publicized, scientists design experiments to test the theory. If observations confirm the scientist’s predictions, the theory is supported. If observations do not confirm the predictions, the scientists must search further. There may be a fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or rejected. Science involves imagination and creative thinking as well as collecting information and performing experiments. Facts by themselves are not science. As the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare said, “Science is built with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts cannot be called science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house.” Most scientists start an investigation by finding out what other scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the investigation that requires considerable imagination. Possible solutions to the problem are formulated. These possible solutions are called hypotheses. In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into the unknown. It extends the scientist’s thinking beyond the known facts. The scientist plans experiments, performs calculations, and makes observations to test hypotheses. Without hypothesis, further investigation lacks purpose and direction. When hypotheses are confirmed, they are incorporated into theories. 27。科学理论,
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源: 在科学、理论是一个合理的解释观测到的事件相关的。理论模型通常包含一个虚构的方式帮助科学家观察活动照片。一个好的例子是发现在动态分子理论,即气体是由被描绘成许多小颗粒,都在不断地运动。
一个有用的理论,除了解释过去的观察,有助于预测事件至今还未被观察到。理论已经公布之后,科学家设计的实验来验证这个理论。如果观察确认科学家的预测方法,理论是支持。如果观察不确定的预测,科学家必须搜索更进一步。可能有错在实验中,或理论可能需要修改或拒绝。
科学主要涉及想象力和创造性的思维以及收集信息,表演的实验。事实本身并非科学。像数学家朱尔斯·庞加莱说道,“科学与事实就像房子是由砖头建成,但是事实的总和不能称为科学任何超过一大堆砖头不能称为房子。”
大多数科学家开始调查,找出其他科学家已经了解了一个具体的问题。已知的事实
之后,科学家已经收集来的一部分,需要相当多的调查想象力。可能解决这个问题的办法是制定。这些可能的解决方法被称为假说。
从某种意义上说,任何假设是一个飞跃到未知的领域。它的科学家的思维延伸超越已知的事实。这位科学家计划,执行计算实验,观察到测试假说。没有假设,进一步的调查没有目标和方向。当假说得到证实,它们纳入理论。
26. International Business and Cross-cultural Communication 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： The increase in international business and in foreign investment has created a need for executives with knowledge of foreign languages and skills in cross-cultural communication. Americans, however, have not been well trained in either area and, consequently, have not enjoyed the same level of success in negotiation in an international arena as have their foreign counterparts. Negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth for the purpose of reaching an agreement. It involves persuasion and compromise, but in order to participate in either one, the negotiators must understand the ways in which people are persuaded and how compromise is reached within the culture of the negotiation. In many international business negotiations abroad, Americans are perceived as wealthy and impersonal. It often appears to the foreign negotiator that the American represents a large multi-million-dollar corporation that can afford to pay the price without bargaining further. The American negotiator’s role becomes that of an impersonal purveyor of information and cash. In studies of American negotiators abroad, several traits have been identified that may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception, while undermining the negotiator’s position. Two traits in particular that cause cross-cultural misunderstanding are directness and impatience on the part of the American negotiator. Furthermore, American negotiators often insist on realizing short-term goals. Foreign negotiators, on the other hand, may value the relationship established between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in it for long-term benefits. In order to solidify the relationship, they may opt for indirect interactions without regard for the time involved in getting to know the other negotiator. 26。国际商务和跨文化交际
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
在国际贸易的增长在外国投资的需求,培养外语知识和技能的跨文化交流。然而,美国人在这两方面,因此,没有享受到同等水平的成功在国际舞台上进行谈判作为他们的外国同行。
谈判的过程来回沟通的目的是为了达成协议。它包括说服和妥协,但为了参与其中的任何一方,谈判人员必须理解人们是如何被说服的和妥协达成谈判的文化。
在许多外国的国际商务谈判中,美国人被看作是富有而冷漠。似乎常常在外国谈判
员,美国代表了资产数百万美元的大公司可以支付的价格没有讨价还价。美国谈判员的角色变成的冷漠的信息和现金。
美国谈判员的研究中,发现了几个特点可以证实这个刻板印象,会影响谈判者的位置。两个特质,造成跨文化误会直率、急躁部分美国谈判代表。此外,美国谈判员常常坚持实现短期目标。外交谈判,另一方面,可能值之间的关系,建立了谈判可能愿意为长期收益投入时间。为了强化这种关系,他们会选择间接的交互作用时间作为对了解对方谈判。
25. Movie Music 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. From the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment; when the Lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film. As movie theaters grew in number and importance, a violinist, and perhaps a cellist, would be added to the pianist in certain cases, and in the larger movie theaters small orchestras were formed. For a number of years the selection of music for each film program rested entirely in the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very often the principal qualification for holding such a position was not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal library of musical pieces. Since the conductor seldom saw the films until the night before they were to be shown(if indeed, the conductor was lucky enough to see them then), the musical arrangement was normally improvised in the greatest hurry. To help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments. In 1909, for example, the Edison Company began issuing with their films such indications of mood as “ pleasant”, “sad”, “lively”. The suggestions became more explicit, and so emerged the musical cue sheet containing indications of mood, the titles of suitable pieces of music, and precise directions to show where one piece led into the next. Certain films had music especially composed for them. The most famous of these early special scores was that composed and arranged for D.W Griffith’s film Birth of a Nation, which was released in 1915. Note: 美国通俗音乐分类： 1．Jazz; 1) traditional jazz---- a) blues, 代表人物：Billy Holiday b)ragtime(切分乐曲): 代表人物：Scott Joplin c)New Orleans jazz (= Dixieland jazz) eg: Louis Armstron d)swing eg: Glenn Miller, Duke Ellington, etc. e)bop (=bebop, rebop) eg: Lester Young, Charlie Parker etc. 2)modern jazz ------ a) cool jazz(=progressive jazz)高雅爵士乐。 Eg: Kenny G. b)third-stream jazz. Eg: Charles Mingus, John Lewis. c) main stream jazz. d)avant-garde jazz. e) soul jazz. Eg: Sarah Vaughn, Ella Fitzgerald f) Latin jazz. 2.gospel music 福音音乐， 主要源于Nero spirituals. Eg. Dolly Parker, Mahalia Jackson 3.Country and Western music. Eg. John Denver, Tammy Wynette, Kenny Rogers, etc. 4. Rock music-----------a) rock and roll eg: Elvis Prestley(US) , the Beatles(UK.) b)folk rock Eg: Bob Dylon, Michael Jackson, Mariah Carey, Bruce Springsteen, Lionel Riche etc. c)punk rock d)acid rock e)rock jazz eg: M.J. McLaughlin f) Jurassic rock 5.Music for easy listening (i.e. light music ) 25。电影音乐,
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
虽然我们习惯于1927年以前的电影是无声的,但电影从未在全意识的词,沉默。从一开始就相处得很好,音乐被认为是当卢米埃尔的放映影片公映展览在1896年2月美国,他们流行曲临场钢琴伴奏流行曲调。起初,没有特殊的关系,演奏的音乐,电影,任何类型的搭配是足够的。在很短的时间,但不玩一个严肃的音乐和电影胶片变得显而易见,钢琴家开始注意他们的作品的情调的电影。
随着电影院越来越多,越来越重要,小提琴大提琴,将被添加到钢琴家,在某些情况下,在较大的电影院里组建了小型交响乐队。多年来的电影音乐的选择程序完全乐队指挥和交响乐团,并经常校长资格持有这样一个位置不是技巧和品味,与其说是拥有大量的个人音乐素材库。自从售票员很少见到的电影,直到前天晚上他们将被(如果这个指挥确实有幸看到的话),音乐的编排通常是临时的最伟大的匆忙。
为了解决这个难题,电影发行公司开始实践为音乐伴奏。1909年,例如爱迪生公司开始与他们的电影发行的迹象”这样的心情愉快”、“悲伤”、“活泼”。这个建议变得更加明确,并且出现了音乐转换点等的适用乐曲名称、内容显示单。
某些电影音乐,特别是组成。最著名的是,这些早期的专项成绩组成及安排D . W•格里菲思的电影诞生一个国家,它是在1915年。
注:
美国通俗音乐分类: 1.Jazz。
1)传统爵士乐——),代表人物布鲁斯︰比利假日 切分乐曲切分音(b):代表人物:斯科特·乔普林
c)。新奥尔良爵士(=南方爵士乐)如:路易斯·阿姆斯特伦 d):格伦·米勒挥拍杜克艾灵顿等。
防喷器(e),rebop博莱斯特:)年轻,查理帕克等等。
二)现代爵士乐——一个)酷派爵士乐(爵士)高雅爵士乐进步。例如:凯丽·金。 third-stream爵士)。例如:查尔斯Mingus,约翰·刘易斯。 c)主流爵士乐。 d)前卫的爵士乐。
e)的灵魂爵士。例如:莎拉·沃恩拉·菲茨杰拉德 f)拉丁爵士乐。
2.gospel音乐福音音乐,主要源于Nero精神上的。如。多莉·帕克,Mahalia杰克逊 3。乡村音乐和西方音乐。如。约翰·丹佛,这么Wynette,肯尼·罗杰斯,等等。 4。摇滚音乐————————————)的摇滚如:猫王Prestley(我们),甲壳虫乐队(英国)。
b)的民谣摇滚如:鲍勃Dylon,迈克尔·杰克逊,玛丽亚·凯莉,布鲁斯·斯普林斯汀,莱昂内尔富裕等等。
朋克摇滚c)。 酸性岩d),
e)摇滚爵士:M.J.麦莱夫林 f)侏罗纪的岩石
5。听音乐对容易(即轻音乐)。
28.Changing Roles of Public Education 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： One of the most important social developments that helped to make possible a shift in thinking about the role of public education was the effect of the baby boom of the 1950's and 1960's on the schools. In the 1920's, but especially in the Depression conditions of the 1930's, the United States experienced a declining birth rate --- every thousand women aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in 1936, and 80 in 1940. With the growing prosperity brought on by the Second World War and the economic boom that followed it young people married and established households earlier and began to raise larger families than had their predecessors during the Depression. Birth rates rose to 102 per thousand in 1946,106.2 in 1950, and 118 in 1955. Although economics was probably the most important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the baby boom. The increased value placed on the idea of the family also helps to explain this rise in birth rates. The baby boomers began streaming into the first grade by the mid 1940's and became a flood by 1950. The public school system suddenly found itself overtaxed. While the number of schoolchildren rose because of wartime and postwar conditions, these same conditions made the schools even less prepared to cope with the food. The wartime economy meant that few new schools were built between 1940 and 1945. Moreover, during the war and in the boom times that followed, large numbers of teachers left their profession for better-paying jobs elsewhere in the economy. Therefore in the 1950’s and 1960’s, the baby boom hit an antiquated and inadequate school system. Consequently, the “ custodial rhetoric” of the 1930’s and early 1940’s no longer made sense that is, keeping youths aged sixteen and older out of the labor market by keeping them in school could no longer be a high priority for an institution unable to find space and staff to teach younger children aged five to sixteen. With the baby boom, the focus of educators and of laymen interested in education inevitably turned toward the lower grades and back to basic academic skills and discipline. The system no longer had much interest in offering nontraditional, new, and extra services to older youths. 28。公众教育的角色
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
其中最重要的社会发展,可能有助于改变思考的作用效果的公共教育是婴儿潮的1950年的和1960年在学校。在1920年的,特别是在1930年的大萧条的条件是,美国经验的出生率持续下降——每千十五到44岁的女性生约118住孩子1920年的今天,在1930年89.2 75.8 1936年,与80 1940年。与日益繁荣而带来的第二次世界大战中,经济的繁荣,跟着那年轻人结婚并建立家庭早期和提高较大的家庭比他们的前辈在萧条时期。出生率的上升至102每千人在1950年,118 1946,106.2 1955年。尽管经济可能是最重要的决定,这不是唯一的婴儿潮一代的解释。增加的价值观念的家庭也有助于解释这个由于出生率上升。这个婴儿潮时期出生的人开始流进一年级在1940年的洪水,成为由1950年。公立学校系统突然发现自己已经不堪重负。虽然这个数字的学童因战争以及战后上升,同样是这些条件的情况使学校更少的准备应付的食物。战时经济意味着一些新的学校建1940 - 1945年。另外,战争期间,在繁荣时期,大量的教师离开了他们的职业,在其他地方经济的更高薪水的工作。
因此,在1950年的和1960年的,婴儿潮打过时的,学校教育制度的不足。因此“清洁”,
的1930年的修辞和早期1940不再感觉那是青少年十六岁,和老的劳动力市场以使他们在学校不可能再是一个高优先级的一个机构未能找到空间和员工的教导年幼的儿童5岁到16岁。与婴儿潮,教育者和的兴趣不可避免平民教育转向低等级和回到基础学术能力和纪律。这个系统已没有多少兴趣,新的,提供创新的服务更老的年轻人。
30 The origin of Refrigerators 时间：2008年02月26日 作者： 来源： By the mid-nineteenth century, the term “icebox” had entered the American language, but ice was still only beginning to affect the diet of ordinary citizens in the United States. The ice trade grew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and hospitals, and by some forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat, fresh fish, and butter. After the Civil War( 1861-1865),as ice was used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use. Even before 1880,half of the ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston and Chicago, went to families for their own use. This had become possible because a new household convenience, the icebox, a precursor of the modern refrigerator, had been invented. Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the early nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary. The commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented the ice from melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting of the ice that performed the cooling. Nevertheless, early efforts to economize ice included wrapping up the ice in blankets, which kept the ice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did inventors achieve the delicate balance of insulation and circulation needed for an efficient icebox. But as early as 1803, and ingenious Maryland farmer, Thomas Moore, had been on the right track. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the city of Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the market center. When he used an icebox of his own design to transport his butter to market, he found that customers would pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to pay a premium price for his butter, still fresh and hard in neat, one-pound bricks. One advantage of his icebox, Moore explained, was that farmers would no longer have to travel to market at night in order to keep their produce cool. 30原产地的冰箱
作者:时间:2008年02月26日来源:
通过十九世纪中期,术语“冰箱”已经进入美国的语言,但是冰还刚刚开始影响饮食的普通公民在美国。这个冰的交易也随之不断增长的城市。冰是应用于酒店、小酒馆、医院、和一些前瞻性的城市经营者,新鲜的鱼,新鲜肉类和黄油。美国内战后(1861年到1865年),如冰是用于冷却货车,它也到了家庭使用。1880年之前,有一半的冰块卖在纽约、费城、巴尔的摩、三分之一,在波士顿和芝加哥,卖到家庭,供自己使用。这已经成为可能,因为一个新的家居方便、冰箱(一种现代的冰箱,已经发明了。
制作一个有效率的冰箱不像我们想象的那么简单。在19世纪初,认识的热物理科学至关重要的制冷,是简陋。有常识的观念,最好是一个有效率的冰箱防止冰的融化是错误的,因为它是冰的融化的冷却。然而,早期的努力来节省冰包裹包括在结冰的毯子,使得冰做它的工作。直到近19世纪的发明家达到隔热和循环的精确平衡需要一个有效率的冰箱。
但早在1803年,托马斯·莫尔马里兰农场主,精巧,一直在正确的轨道。他拥有一家农场大约二十英里之外,而华盛顿乔治敦的村庄是集市中心。当他用自己设计的冰箱运送黄油来市场时,他发现顾客们会把迅速融化在桶里,他的竞争对手付出溢价价格还是新鲜的黄油和努力在整洁、黄油。他的冰箱的好处之一,就是农民摩尔解释将不再有夜间旅行到市场,以保持凉爽。
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